Table 3 Antiviral Drugs or Compounds against Viruses have Similarities in the Type/Group, Genomic Composition, and Structure of SARS-CoV-2
Viruses | Compounds | Plant Sources | Assays | Activities | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Human coronavirus type | |||||
 Human coronavirus strains OC43 (HCoV-OC43) | Tetrandrine (TET) Fangchinoline (FAN) Cepharanthine (CEP) | Stephania tetrandra | In vitro: in MRC-5 cells | IC50 of TET = 0.33 ± 0.03 μM; FAN = 1.01 ± 0.07 μM; CEP = 0.83 ± 0.07 μM | [91] |
 HCoV-OC43 MERS-CoV HCoV-NL63 MHV-A59 | Lycorine (standard) | Amaryllidaceae | In vitro: in BHK-21, Vero E6, LLC-MK2, DBT cells In vivo: in mice against HCoV-OC43 | EC50 = 0.15 – 1.63 μM | [78] |
  Coronavirus MHV-A59 | Essential oils of the ethanol extracts (Ah extract) containing carvacrol (38.4%) and α-pinene (30.9%) | Anthemis hyaline (Ah) | In vitro using quantitative analysis by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in HeLa-CEACAM1a cells | After 6 and 8 h post infections, no detected virus was evaluated with TCID50 values at 1/10 dilution of Ah extracts | [79] |
 HCoV-229E | Saikosaponin B2 | Bupleurum spp., Heteromorpha spp., Scrophularia scorodonia | In vitro using XTT assay | IC50 = 1.7 ± 0.1 μmol/L | |
Genomic similarities | |||||
 SARS-CoV strains 39,849 | Baicalin | Scutellaria baicalensis (Huang Qin) | In vitro antiviral susceptibility testing on fRhK4 and Vero-E6 cell lines | EC50 in fRhK4 and Vero-E6 cell lines = 12.5 and 100 μg/mL at 48 h | [94] |
 Recombinant SARS-CoV PLpro | Papyriflavonol A (prenylated quercetin derivative) | Broussonetia papyrifera (dried roots) | In vitro using viral protease inhibition assay on SARS-CoV based on the FRET method | IC50 = 3.7 μM | [80] |
 MERS-CoV | Resveratrol | Vitis vinifera (grape), Polygonum cuspidatum (Huzhang), Vaccinium macrocarpon (cranberry) | In vitro using MTT assay, NRU (neural red uptake) assay, and plaque reduction assay in Vero E6 cells | Resveratrol reduced cell death in a range concentration of 250–125 μM for 48 h after infection | [81] |
 SARS-CoV 3CLpro | Curcumin |  | In vitro using FRET method | IC50 40 μM | [95] |
 SARS-CoV 3CLpro | Savinin | Chamaceyparis obtusa var. formosana | In vitro using FRET method | IC50 25 μM Ki = 9.1 ± 2.4 μM | [95] |
 SARS-CoV 3CLpro and PLpro | Xanthoangelol E | Angelica keiskei (Miq.) Koidz (ethanolic leaf extract) | In vitro using cell-free based assay | IC50 of 11.4 and 1.2 μM | [82] |
 SARS-CoV PLpro | Coumestrol, isobavachalcone, and psoralidin | Psoralea corylifolia L. (ethanol extract of the seeds) | In vitro using the fluorogenic substrate Ub-AMC | IC50 of 4.2; 7.3 and 10.1 μM | [96] |
 Recombinant SARS-CoV 3CLpro | Dieckol | Ecklonia cava (brown algae) | In vitro using FRET method (for cell-free transcleavage assay) and luciferase activity (for Vero cell-based cis-cleavage assay) | IC50 of trans- and cis- cleavage inhibitory: 2.7 and 68.1 μM, respectively | [83] |
Enveloped viruses | |||||
  HIV-1 | Baicalin and baicalein | Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi | In vitro using ELISA on fresh normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) | IC50 = 0.5 μg/mL | [97] |
  HIV-1 | Baicalin | Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi | In vitro using quantitative colorimetric assays | IC50 = 4 μM | [98] |
 Murine cytomegalovirus (MCV) | Black seed oil (BSO) or habatussaudah | Nigella sativa | In vivo using a viral plaque-forming assay of BALB/c mice spleen and liver | Undetected virus at the ratio of the effector to target cells was 20:1 | [99] |
 HSV-1 and HSV-2 | Ethanol extracts of flower buds of E. caryophyllus containing eugenol | Eugenia caryophyllus (Spreng.) Bullock & S.G. Harrison | In vitro using plaque reduction assay on green monkey kidney (GMK) | ED50 against HSV-1 and HSV-2: 72.8 and 74.4 μg/mL | [84] |
 HSV-1 | Isoborneol | Salvia fruticosa | In vitro using viral plaque assay on Vero cells | 0.1% isoborneol inactivated 86% of the infectious virus within 30 min | [85] |
 HSV-1 | Star anise oil (SAO) contains trans-anethole (80%), eugenol, b-caryophyllene, eugenol | Illicium verum (star anise) | In vitro using plaque reduction assay | IC50 SAO = 1 ± 0.1 μg/mL IC50 beta-caryophyllene = 0.25 ± 0.0 μg/mL | [86] |
  Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) | Phyacidusin B and phllanthacidoid A1 | Phyllantus acidus (stem) | In vitro using the cytopathic end-point assay in HepG2.2.2.15 cells | IC50 of HBsAg is 11.2 ± 0.01 μM by Phyacidusin B and HBeAg is 57.1 ± 0.02 μM by phllanthacidoid | [100] |
 HSV-1 (F strain ATCC VR733) | J. oxycedrus berries oil containing α-pinene, β-myrcene | Juniperus oxycedrus ssp. | In vitro, using visually scoring of the virus-induced cytopathogenic effect (CPE) for 72 h post-infection on Vero cells | IC50: 200 μg/mL; SI of 5 | [101] |
Respiratory diseases | |||||
  Influenza virus A/Germany/27, str. Weybrigde (H7N7) and A/Germany/34, str. Rostock (H7N1) | (-)-thalimonine (Thl) | Thalictrum simplex L (aerial parts) | In vitro in cell cultures of chicken embryo fibroblasts | Inhibit viral reproduction at non-toxic concentration 0.1–6.4 μM with a selectivity index = 640 | [87] |
 Influenza type A (A/Betezda/63/10/H2N2) and type B (B/Lee/40) | Essential oil from fruits containing pinene, limonene, a complex of ethers of octanol and hexanol | Heracleum L species, such as H. aconitifolium Woronow. H. antasiaticum Manden., etc | In vivo using intrasanal and oral treatments on mice | LD50 of 0.2–0.4 mL | [102] |
  Influenza A/PR/8/34 (PR8) virus (H1N1 subtype) | Cinnamaldehyde (CA) | Cinnamomi cortex | In vitro using plaque reduction assay on MCDK cells In vivo based on therapeutic efficacy in mice | CA inhibits all of the virus growth at 200 μM. Application of CA in the airways led to the significant rescue of infected mice | [88] |